About Uranium Uranium Mining: Canada’s Uranium Production and Nuclear Power Canada is the world's largest producer of uranium. In 2004 production at 13,676 tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate (11,597 tonnes U) was about 30% of total world production. Its value was about C$ 800 million. Canada's low cost uranium reserves (Reasonably Assured Resources plus Estimated Additional Resources- category 1) are 509,000 tonnes of U3O8 (432,000 tU, 12% of world total), compared with Australia's reserves of double that. Some $539 million was spent on U exploration in Canada 1986-97 (over twice as much as Australia's $226 million) and this led to a sharp increase in recoverable resources to 507,000 tonnes U3O8 (measured, indicated & inferred resources). Despite depletion from mining, this remains much the same. Of the total at 1/1/04, 297,000 tonnes (252,000 tU) was "measured", possibly equivalent to "proven reserves" in some of the company data quoted below. Exploration expenditure in 2003 was C$ 36 million, mostly at established projects. However, the C$13 million of this on grassroots exploration in Saskatchewan represented a major proportion of world uranium exploration. Canada is the only country able to compete with Australia and expand production strongly as required to meet increases in world uranium demand.  Uranium Production Canada is in the midst of a transition from second-generation uranium mines (started 1975-83) to new high-grade ones, all in northern Saskatchewan. Cameco operates the McArthurRiver mine, which started production at the end of 1999. Its ore is milled at KeyLake, which once contributed 15% of world uranium production but is now mined out. Its other former mainstay is RabbitLake, which still has some reserves at Eagle Point, where mining resumed in mid 2002 after a three-year break. Cogema Resources operates the McCleanLake mine, which started production in mid 1999. Its CluffLake mine has now closed, and is being decommissioned. Canadian Uranium Mine Production ( tonnes U3O8)   1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 McArthurRiver             4409 7830 8490 6877 8490 Key Lake 5984 6444 6402 6408 6325 4400 474 353 * * - McClean Lake           660 2722 2994 2762 2734 2724 Rabbit Lake 3382 3712 4685 5499 5309 3175 3290 2070 519 2690 2462 Cluff Lake 1256 1432 2271 2316 1225 1455 1702 1496 1918 32 - Stanleigh 755 763 446 closed - - - - - - - TOTAL 11377 12351 13804 14223 12886 9690 12597 14743 13689 12333 13676 cf. World 37890 39271 42200 42092 40008 36643 40962 42886 42529 42271   * = small, incuded with McArthur River figure. Canadian Uranium Mine Production (tonnes Uranium)   1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 McArthur River             3739 6640 7199 5831 7200 Key Lake 5074 5464 5429 5434 5386 3731 402 299 * * - McClean Lake           560 2308 2539 2342 2318 2310 Rabbit Lake 2868 3148 3973 4663 4502 2693 2790 1755 440 2281 2087 Cluff Lake 1065 1214 1926 1964 1039 1234 1443 1269 1626 27 - Stanleigh 640 647 378 closed - - - - - - - TOTAL 9647 10473 11705 12061 10924 8214 10682 12501 11607 10458 11597 cf. World 32129 33300 35784 35692 33728 31065 34734 36366 36063 35844   Source: NRCan, company sources.* = small, incuded with McArthur River figure. The Saskatchewan government actively encourages and supports uranium mining in the Province where it is found to be environmentally acceptable. This reversed a previous policy of the New Democratic Party in the early 1990s to phase out uranium mining. The Government recognised that the jobs brought to the provincial economy by uranium mining were too important to be eliminated by doctrinaire considerations and that the environmental impact of mining could be minimised. Both McClean Lake and McArthur River mines now have ISO 14001 environmental certification. In 1991 a Joint federal-Saskatchewan Panel was formed to study the health, safety, environment and socio-economic impact particularly of the four proposed uranium mining developments. It held public hearings on three proposals in 1996: Cigar Lake, McArthur River and Midwest. TheMcClean Lake mine commenced operation in mid 1999. It is producing almost 3000 t/yr U3O8 (2290 tU) from 2.4% ore but has been relicensed for 3640 t/yr. It has new plant and other infrastructure and uses the first mined-out pit for tailings disposal (the ore having been stockpiled). McClean Lake involves four open pits and later will become an underground mine. It is owned by Cogema Resources (70%, also operator), in joint venture with Denison Energy (22.5%) and OURD (7.5%). McArthur River has enormous high-grade (23%) reserves at a depth of c 600 metres. It opened at the end of 1999. Remote-control raise-boring methods are used for mining and the ore is trucked 80 km south to the modified Key Lake mill, where it is blended with "special waste rock" to produce 8200 t/yr of U3O8 (7000 tU) by 2002. Tailings are deposited in a mined-out pit. Flooding in April 2003 interrupted production for some three months. Cameco is the operator and majority owner, with Cogema (30.2%) as partner. Future Mines There are further new uranium projects coming into production in the next few years in N. Saskatchewan: Cigar Lake will be a 450 m deep underground mine in poor ground conditions, using ground freezing and high-pressure water jets for excavation of ore. High-grade ore slurry from remote mining will be trucked for treatment at Cogema's expanded McClean Lake mill, 70 km northeast, and most of the product then to Cameco's Rabbit Lake mill 70 km east, to produce a total of 8200 t/yr U3O8 (7000 tU/yr) from 2007. Proven ore reserves are 105,000 tonnes U3O8 at 19% average grade, and with other resources the project is expected to have a life of 30-40 years. The full construction licence was issued in December 2004 and construction will begin early in 2005. The McClean Lake mill will be modified in 2005-06 to take the new ore. Some 1.3 million cubic metres of waste rock from Cigar Lake will be emplaced under water in the Sue C pit at McClean Lake. The joint venture is managed by Cameco which holds 50%, other parties being Cogema 37%, Idemitsu 8% and TEPCO 5%. Cogema's Midwest mine was to be underground, utilising ground freezing and water jet boring, but may be open pit. The ore will be milled at McClean Lake nearby, to produce 2600 t/yr U3O8. Government approval received in April 1998 enabled application for CNSC construction and operating licences. The Midwest project is managed by Cogema Resources (holding 69.16%), with Denison Energy (25.17%) & OURD Canada (5.67%). The small Dawn Lake deposit is further from development. Grades up to 30% U3O8 at depths of 280 m have been reported nearby. Cameco has 58%, Cogema 23%, and PNC 19%. Information on Cameco's and Cogema's uranium mines and new developments is on the web. With Cigar Lake and Midwest operating, Cogema's McClean Lake mill will produce over 9,000 tonnes/yr U3O8 (7600 tU), while Cameco's Key Lake mill will produce 8200 t (7000 tU) and Rabbit Lake mill probably about 4000 t (3400 tU), assuming half of the Cigar Lake ore is milled there instead of at McClean Lake mill. Canada would account for about half of expected world mine production then. Canadian Uranium Reserves mine operator tonnes U tonnes U3O8 average ore grade* category Key Lake Cameco 250 300 0.53% proven reserves Rabbit Lake Cameco 4070 4800 1.20% proven reserves   2400 2800 1.62% probable reserves Cluff Lake Cogema 1800 2130 2.5% reserves McClean Lake: Sue Cogema 14100 16650 1.8% reserves McClean Lake: McClean Cogema 4900 5850 2.1% reserves McArthur River Cameco 129000 152000 26.56% proven reserves     33000 39000 19.06% probable reserves     6700 7900 9.42% measured +indicated resources     41 000 48 000 9.51% inferred resources Cigar Lake Cameco 87 000 102 860 20.67% proven reserves     2000 2400 4.41% probable reserves     45 500 53 600 16.92% inferred resources Midwest Cogema 13 800 16 300 4.5% reserves Dawn Lake Cameco 4900 5800 1.69% indicated resources * % U3O8. NB: these figures are from recent company sources (Cameco Dec 2004) and are not directly comparable with those (RAR) in the first part of the paper. Other Fuel Cycle Activities Canada has one conversion facility producing UF6 for export, with a capacity of 12,400 tonnes U per year. Two fuel fabrication plants produce 1900 tonnes U per year largely for the country's own reactors. About 20 per cent of Canada's uranium production is domestically consumed. Nuclear Power In 1944, an engineering design team was brought together in Montreal, Quebec, to develop a heavy water moderated nuclear reactor. The National Research Experimental reactor (NRX) was built at Chalk River, Ontario, and started up in 1947. It provided the basis for Canada's development of the very successful CANDU series of pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) for power generation, and served as one of the most valuable research reactors in the world. In 1955 AECL with others committed to build the small (22 MWe) prototype NPD reactor at Rolphton, Ontario. It started up in 1967. A larger prototype - 200 MWe - was built at Douglas Point, Ontario and started up in 1967. It was the design basis of the first Indian PHWR power reactors, Rawatbhata 1 & 2. Then the 250 MWe Gentilly-1 prototype started up in 1971 in Quebec, but only ran for six years. The CANDU nuclear reactor system was developed by Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) and Canadian industry. The CANDU (CANadian Deuterium Uranium) is generically a pressurised heavy water reactor. The key to the success of the system is its simplicity, its use of natural uranium (as UO2) as a fuel, and the ability to refuel without shutting down. The reactors use heavy water under pressure as a coolant, as well as using heavy water as a moderator. The use of heavy water means that an ancillary industry is needed to produce it, corresponding to the rather more capital-intensive enrichment services required by other reactor types. The major commercial utilisation of the CANDU system has been in Ontario, which has benefited from this electricity source since the early 1970s. In Ontario, 15 commercial nuclear reactors operate at three locations. They, with a further five older ones now laid up, were producing two thirds of the Province's electricity. Two or more of the laid-up units may be retired permanently - Pickering 1 is in the process of being recommissioned. Single unit CANDU reactors also operate in Quebec and New Brunswick. In addition, export sales of 12 CANDU units have been made to South Korea (4), Romania (2), India (2), Pakistan (1), Argentina (1) and China (2), along with the engineering expertise to build and operate them. Canada's nuclear power reactors   MWe net Status Operator First power* Pickering A 1 515 laid up Ontario Hydro 1971 Pickering A 2 515 laid up Ontario Hydro 1971 Pickering A 3 515 laid up Ontario Hydro 1972 Pickering A 4 515 operating Ontario Hydro 1972/ 2003* Pickering B 5 516 operating Ontario Hydro 1982 Pickering B 6 516 operating Ontario Hydro 1983 Pickering B 7 516 operating Ontario Hydro 1984 Pickering B 8 516 operating Ontario Hydro 1986 Bruce A 1 769 laid up Bruce Power 1977 Bruce A 2 769 laid up Bruce Power 1976 Bruce A 3 769 operating Bruce Power 1977/ 2003* Bruce A 4 769 operating Bruce Power 1978/ 2003* Bruce B 5 785 operating Bruce Power 1984 Bruce B 6 785 operating Bruce Power 1984 Bruce B 7 785 operating Bruce Power 1986 Bruce B 8 785 operating Bruce Power 1987 Darlington 1 881 operating Ontario Hydro 1990 Darlington 2 881 operating Ontario Hydro 1990 Darlington 3 881 operating Ontario Hydro 1992 Darlington 4 881 operating Ontario Hydro 1993 Gentilly 2 638 operating Hydro Quebec 1982 Point Lepreau 1 635 operating New Brunswick Power 1982 Total operating (17) 12,080       * second date: return to service from being laid up in 1998. The reactors at Darlington, Ontario provide the base design for the new CANDU-9 series of reactors of around 900 MWe. This design supplements the proven CANDU-6 of about 700 MWe, which has been an export success. The CANDU-9 has flexible fuel requirements ranging from natural uranium through slightly-enriched uranium, recovered uranium from reprocessing spent PWR fuel, mixed oxide (U & Pu) fuel, direct use of spent PWR fuel, to thorium. The Advanced Candu Reactor (ACR) is a more innovative concept, also being developed from the CANDU-6. While retaining the low-pressure heavy water moderator, it incorporates some features of the pressurised water reactor. Adopting light water cooling and a more compact core reduces capital cost. It will run on low-enriched uranium (about 1.5% U-235) with high burn-up, extending the fuel life by about three times and reducing high-level waste volumes accordingly. Units will be assembled from prefabricated modules, eventually cutting construction time to three years. The 750 MWe ACR-700 is moving towards design certification in Canada and AECL expects that the first units will be operating in about 2012. The new reactor will be put together from modules, and AECL anticipates having major components built in US shipyards, using a high degree of standardisation of components. On the basis of its several recent Asian construction successes, AECL is projecting the lead unit cost at US$ 1255 per kilowatt, with later units under $1100/kWe. The ACR is designed to be built in pairs, and construction time is estimated at 44 months for the first unit reducing to 36 months for the fifth and subsequent ones. AECL plans to offer fixed price contracts to buyers. A larger version of the type - the 1200 MWe ACR-1000 - is under development, and beyond that AECL has the Candu-X on the drawing board - a supercritical reactor and step forward from the ACR which is expected to be available about 2020. Economy Nuclear energy contributes some $5 billion per year to the Canadian economy and provides 20,000 direct jobs (2000 in mining and uranium processing) and many more indirect jobs. The total nuclear electricity generated has a value of about C$ 3.7 billion per year and helps Canada minimise emissions from electric power generation. Total exports of Canadian nuclear goods and services was some C$ 1.2 billion in 2001. Almost $500 million of this was uranium, but $350 million for reactor fuel, radioisotopes and heavy water emphasise the value-added component and the market for products capable of being produced in such countries. Reactor hardware, notably CANDU reactors, can add to this when sales are made. Research & Development The government established Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd (AECL) in 1952 and has funded its R&D programs since then. AECL also receives commercial revenues from its ventures. The Chalk River Laboratories were set up by the government in the 1940s and have been the locus of much successful R&D under AECL. The 42 MW National Research Experimental (NRX) reactor of was built there in 1947, followed by the 135 MW National Research Universal (NRU) reactor a decade later. Four other research reactors followed, with 10 MW Maple due to start in 2004. Six other research reactors were built and continue to operate on university campuses. AECL has undertaken all the developmental work on the Candu reactor types. It is now developing the third-generation Advanced Candu Reactor (described above) and also has the lead role internationally in developing the Generation IV Super-Critical Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR). Radioactive wastes Canada's Nuclear Waste Management Organisation (NWMO) was set up under the 2002 Nuclear Fuel Waste Act by the three nuclear utilities, who operate in conjunction with AECL. Its mandate is to explore options for storage and disposal, to then make proposals to the government, and to implement what is decided. NWMO has published three conceptual designs for the technical options specified in the Act, based on proven technologies. NWMO with AECL is also required to maintain trust funds for spent fuel management and probable disposal. Less than 3000 tonnes of spent fuel per year from Candu reactors is involved. Reactor Site Extended Storage (at 7 sites) is found to be feasible, requiring only some further dry storage facilities to be built. Centralised Extended Storage is similar to systems operating in 12 countries already, but longer term. Dry storage is also preferred in this case, with two options on the surface and two below ground level. A deep geological repository is the third possibility, allowing later retrieval if required. It is most closely aligned with international consensus and has already been the subject of environmental review in Canada. It involves burying nuclear waste 500 to 1000 metres deep in the stable rock of the Canadian Shield. This will be below the water table and with the containers packed in bentonite clay. This concept was the subject of detailed scrutiny by the federal Environment Assessment Panel over three years in the 1990s, involving public hearings. The waste may consist of spent fuel bundles or the solidified high-level waste from reprocessing them, sealed in copper or titanium containers. A further public discussion phase in 2004 will lead to recommendations to government early in 2005. For low and intermediate-level wastes, the utilities and AECL remain responsible. These are stored above ground, and a longer-term facility for Ontario is envisaged for about 2015. A large amount of low-level legacy waste from historic radium and uranium refinery operations at Port Hope, Ontario. These will be permanently emplaced in an above-ground repository in a C$ 260 million government-funded project. Three Candu reactors have been shut down and are being decommissioned: Gentilly-1, Douglas Point and NPD at Rolphton - all owned by AECL. They were shut down in 1977, 1984 and 1987 respectively and are expected to be demolished in about 30 years. Regulation and safety The Canadian federal nuclear regulatory and licensing agency is the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). It is responsible for regulating domestic nuclear facilities and is also charged with administering the country's safeguards agreement. It was set up in 2000 under the new Nuclear Safety & Control Act and its regulations, as successor to the Atomic Energy Control Board which had served since 1946. The CNSC reports to parliament through the Minister of Natural Resources. Non-proliferation Canada's uranium is sold strictly for electrical power generation only, and international safeguards are in place to ensure this. Other equipment and services are for peaceful uses only. The CNSC assists the IAEA by allowing access to Canadian nuclear facilities and arranging for the installation of safeguards equipment at the sites. It reports regularly to the IAEA on nuclear materials held in Canada. The CNSC also manages a program for research and development in support of IAEA safeguards, the Canadian Safeguards Support Programme. Canada is a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) as a non-nuclear weapons state. Its safeguards agreement under the NPT came into force in 1972 and the Additional Protocol in relation to this came into force in 2000. A bilateral safeguards agreement is required with each customer nation as a precondition of trade, placing additional requirements on them beyond those of the NPT and IAEA. Canada is also a member of the Nuclear Suppliers' Group.